The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923)

Timeline

Layers

Ottoman Empire · Ottoman vassals & autonomous lands · Ankara government / Republic of Turkey

Events

• 1299, Osman I founds the Ottoman beylik: Osman, a Turkoman chief at Söğüt on the Byzantine frontier in Bithynia, begins the conquests that give the dynasty its name; 1299 is the traditional founding date.
• 27 Jul 1302, Battle of Bapheus: Osman defeats a Byzantine force near Nicomedia, the first Ottoman victory over the empire; the Bithynian countryside is opened to Turkish settlement.
• 6 Apr 1326, Bursa taken — the first Ottoman capital: After a long blockade Bursa surrenders to Orhan, Osman's son; it becomes the first real Ottoman capital and the dynasty's burial place.
• 2 Mar 1331, Nicaea (İznik) surrenders: The old Byzantine capital of Nicaea falls to Orhan after a three-year blockade; Nicomedia (İzmit) follows in 1337.
• 2 Mar 1354, Gallipoli — first foothold in Europe: An earthquake ruins the walls of Gallipoli and Orhan's son Süleyman Pasha occupies the town, the Ottomans' first permanent base in Europe.
• 1369, Adrianople becomes Edirne: Adrianople falls to Murad I (c. 1369) and, as Edirne, becomes the Ottoman capital in Europe and the base for the Balkan conquests.
• 26 Sep 1371, Battle of the Maritsa (Chernomen): Lala Şahin Pasha destroys the army of the Serbian lords Vukašin and Uglješa; the Serbian princes of Macedonia and Bulgaria's tsar become Ottoman vassals.
• 9 Apr 1387, Thessalonica surrenders: After a four-year siege the Byzantine city of Thessalonica surrenders to the Ottomans (it is briefly returned to Byzantium in 1403).
• 15 Jun 1389, Battle of Kosovo: Murad I defeats the Serbian coalition of Prince Lazar; both rulers die. Murad's son Bayezid I becomes sultan and Serbia an Ottoman vassal.
• 25 Sep 1396, Battle of Nicopolis: Bayezid I crushes the Franco-Hungarian crusade of King Sigismund on the Danube, confirming Ottoman control of the Balkans.
• 20 Jul 1402, Battle of Ankara — Timur captures Bayezid: Timur routs the Ottoman army and captures Bayezid I, who dies in captivity. Timur restores the Anatolian beyliks and Bayezid's sons fight an eleven-year civil war.
• 5 Jul 1413, Battle of Çamurlu: Mehmed I reunites the realm: Mehmed I defeats his brother Musa near Samokov and ends the Ottoman Interregnum as sole sultan.
• 29 Mar 1430, Thessalonica taken from Venice: Murad II storms Thessalonica, held by Venice since 1423; Ioannina submits the same year.
• 28 Nov 1443, Skanderbeg's revolt in Albania: Gjergj Kastrioti (Skanderbeg) deserts the Ottoman army and holds Krujë and much of Albania against the sultans until his death in 1468.
• 10 Nov 1444, Battle of Varna: Murad II defeats the crusade of King Władysław III of Poland and Hungary, who is killed; the last crusade to save Constantinople fails.
• 29 May 1453, Fall of Constantinople: Mehmed II storms Constantinople after a 53-day siege; the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, dies and the city becomes the Ottoman capital, Istanbul.
• 4 Jul 1456, Siege of Belgrade repulsed: John Hunyadi and John of Capistrano defeat Mehmed II's attack on the Hungarian fortress of Belgrade, halting the Ottoman advance on Hungary for 65 years.
• 20 Jun 1459, Smederevo falls: Serbia annexed: The Serbian Despotate's capital surrenders and Serbia becomes an Ottoman province; the Morea follows in 1460.
• 15 Aug 1461, Trebizond surrenders: Emperor David surrenders Trebizond, the last Byzantine successor state, to Mehmed II.
• 1 Jun 1463, Conquest of Bosnia: Mehmed II overruns the Kingdom of Bosnia and executes its last king, Stephen Tomašević, at Jajce; Hungary retakes Jajce that winter and holds it until 1527.
• 11 Aug 1473, Battle of Otlukbeli: Mehmed II defeats Uzun Hasan of the Aq Qoyunlu near Erzincan, securing eastern Anatolia and the annexation of Karaman.
• 6 Jun 1475, Caffa taken; Crimea becomes a vassal: Gedik Ahmed Pasha captures Genoese Caffa and Mangup; the Crimean Khanate accepts Ottoman suzerainty and the south coast becomes an Ottoman province.
• 23 Aug 1514, Battle of Chaldiran: Selim I's artillery and Janissaries defeat Shah Ismail I; Tabriz is briefly occupied and eastern Anatolia is won for the Ottomans.
• 24 Aug 1516, Battle of Marj Dabiq: Selim I defeats the Mamluk Sultan al-Ghawri north of Aleppo; Syria and Palestine pass to the Ottomans.
• 22 Jan 1517, Battle of Ridaniya: Egypt conquered: Selim I defeats the last Mamluk sultan Tumanbay outside Cairo; Egypt falls and the Sharif of Mecca submits, placing the holy cities under the sultan.
• 22 Sep 1520, Süleyman the Magnificent becomes sultan: Süleyman I succeeds his father Selim I; his 46-year reign marks the height of Ottoman power.
• 29 Aug 1521, Belgrade taken: Süleyman captures Belgrade, the key of Hungary's southern defences.
• 22 Dec 1522, Rhodes surrenders — the Knights leave: After a five-month siege the Knights Hospitaller surrender Rhodes and depart, later settling on Malta.
• 29 Aug 1526, Battle of Mohács: Süleyman destroys the Hungarian army; King Louis II drowns in flight and Hungary is split between John Zápolya and Ferdinand of Habsburg.
• 27 Sep 1529, First siege of Vienna: Süleyman besieges Vienna but withdraws before winter; Zápolya rules Hungary as an Ottoman vassal.
• 30 Nov 1534, Baghdad taken from the Safavids: On the Irakeyn campaign Süleyman enters Baghdad without a fight; Iraq becomes Ottoman and Basra submits in 1546.
• 28 Sep 1538, Battle of Preveza: Hayreddin Barbarossa defeats the Holy League fleet under Andrea Doria, securing Ottoman naval dominance in the eastern Mediterranean for three decades.
• 29 Aug 1541, Buda occupied: Süleyman seizes Buda and makes central Hungary an Ottoman province; the infant John Sigismund's Transylvania becomes a vassal state.
• 14 Aug 1551, Tripoli taken from the Knights: Sinan Pasha and Turgut Reis capture Tripoli from the Knights of Malta; it becomes the seat of an Ottoman province.
• 29 May 1555, Peace of Amasya: The first Ottoman–Safavid peace: the Ottomans keep Iraq and eastern Anatolia, Georgia is divided and Tabriz stays Persian.
• 18 May 1565, Great Siege of Malta: The Knights of St John under Jean de Valette hold Malta against a large Ottoman expedition, which withdraws in September.
• 7 Sep 1566, Szigetvár falls; Süleyman dies: Süleyman dies in camp during the siege of Szigetvár, defended to the last by Nikola Zrinski; the fortress falls the next day.
• 1 Aug 1571, Famagusta falls: Cyprus conquered: The Venetian garrison of Famagusta surrenders after an eleven-month siege, completing the conquest of Cyprus.
• 7 Oct 1571, Battle of Lepanto: The Holy League fleet under Don John of Austria destroys the Ottoman fleet; the navy is rebuilt within a year and Cyprus is kept.
• 13 Sep 1574, Tunis and La Goulette taken: Sinan Pasha and Uluç Ali capture La Goulette and Tunis from Spain; Tunisia becomes an Ottoman province.
• 21 Mar 1590, Treaty of Constantinople with Persia: Shah Abbas I cedes Tabriz, western Azerbaijan, Georgia, Shirvan and Luristan — the Ottomans' greatest extent in the east (treaty signed in Istanbul).
• 26 Oct 1596, Battle of Mezőkeresztes: Mehmed III's army routs the Habsburg-Transylvanian army after taking Eger during the Long Turkish War (1593–1606).
• 21 Oct 1603, Shah Abbas retakes Tabriz: Abbas I opens his counter-offensive; by 1607 Erivan, Ganja and Shirvan are also lost and the 1555 frontier is restored.
• 11 Nov 1606, Peace of Zsitvatorok: The Long Turkish War ends at the mouth of the Zsitva: the sultan treats the Habsburg emperor as an equal; Eger and Kanizsa stay Ottoman.
• 20 May 1622, Osman II murdered by the Janissaries: The young sultan, who planned to curb the Janissaries, is deposed and strangled — the first regicide in Ottoman history.
• 14 Jan 1624, Safavids take Baghdad: Shah Abbas I captures Baghdad after a revolt of its garrison; Iraq is lost for fifteen years.
• 17 May 1639, Treaty of Zuhab: Signed at Qasr-e Shirin, it gives Iraq to the Ottomans and Yerevan to Persia and fixes a frontier that lasts, with little change, until 1914.
• 15 Sep 1656, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha grand vizier: The aged Köprülü Mehmed takes office with full powers and restores the empire's finances and army; his family dominates the vizierate until 1683.
• 27 Sep 1669, Candia surrenders: Crete conquered: Francesco Morosini surrenders Candia after a siege of over 21 years, the longest in history; only three island forts stay Venetian.
• 27 Aug 1672, Kamianets taken; Podolia annexed: Mehmed IV captures the Polish fortress of Kamianets; by the Treaty of Buczacz (18 Oct) Poland cedes Podolia.
• 14 Jul 1683, Second siege of Vienna: Kara Mustafa Pasha besieges Vienna; on 12 September a relief army under Jan III Sobieski routs the Ottomans at the Kahlenberg, the start of the long retreat.
• 2 Sep 1686, Buda retaken by the Holy League: After 145 years of Ottoman rule Buda is stormed by an imperial army under Charles of Lorraine.
• 11 Sep 1697, Battle of Zenta: Prince Eugene of Savoy surprises Mustafa II's army crossing the Tisza and destroys it, forcing the Ottomans to make peace.
• 26 Jan 1699, Treaty of Karlowitz: The first great Ottoman cession: Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, Podolia to Poland, the Morea and inland Dalmatia to Venice (Azov to Russia in 1700).
• 21 Jul 1711, Treaty of the Pruth: Baltacı Mehmed Pasha surrounds Peter the Great's army on the Pruth; Russia gives back Azov.
• 20 Jul 1715, The Morea reconquered: Silahdar Damat Ali Pasha takes Nauplia and in a hundred-day campaign recovers the whole Morea from Venice.
• 5 Aug 1716, Battle of Petrovaradin: Prince Eugene defeats the grand vizier, who is killed; Temesvár falls in October and Belgrade in 1717.
• 21 Jul 1718, Treaty of Passarowitz: Austria gains the Banat, Oltenia and northern Serbia with Belgrade; Venice loses the Morea but keeps its Dalmatian gains.
• 4 Oct 1727, Treaty of Hamadan: Persia's Ashraf Shah recognises the Ottoman conquests of 1723–25 in western Iran and the Caucasus; Nader Shah retakes them by 1736.
• 18 Sep 1739, Treaty of Belgrade: Mediated by France, it returns Belgrade, northern Serbia and Oltenia to the Ottomans; Azov is demolished and ceded to Russia.
• 7 Jul 1770, Battle of Chesma: A Russian squadron from the Baltic burns the Ottoman fleet in Çeşme bay.
• 21 Jul 1774, Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca: Crimea becomes independent, Russia gains Kerch, Kinburn and Azov and access to the Black Sea, and claims a role as protector of the Orthodox.
• 19 Apr 1783, Russia annexes the Crimea: Catherine II annexes the Crimean Khanate, the first Muslim land lost by the Ottomans to a Christian power; the Porte accepts it in 1784.
• 9 Jan 1792, Treaty of Jassy: Russia gains Yedisan with Ochakiv; the Dniester becomes the frontier and the annexation of Crimea is confirmed.
• 21 Jul 1798, Napoleon in Egypt: Battle of the Pyramids: Bonaparte defeats the Mamluk beys and occupies Egypt; the French leave in 1801 after British and Ottoman landings.
• 14 Feb 1804, First Serbian Uprising: Karađorđe's revolt, begun at Orašac against the Janissary dahis, frees the Belgrade pashalik until the Ottomans reconquer it in 1813.
• 9 Jul 1805, Muhammad Ali governor of Egypt: The Albanian officer Muhammad Ali is confirmed as governor of Egypt; his dynasty rules Egypt as an autonomous Ottoman province until 1914.
• 28 May 1812, Treaty of Bucharest: Russia gains Bessarabia up to the Prut; Serbia is promised autonomy.
• 23 Apr 1815, Second Serbian Uprising: Miloš Obrenović's revolt at Takovo wins Serbian self-government; he is recognised as prince in 1817 and autonomy is confirmed in 1830.
• 11 Sep 1818, Diriyah destroyed: Muhammad Ali's son Ibrahim Pasha takes the Saudi-Wahhabi capital, ending the first Saudi state, which had held Mecca and Medina 1803–13.
• 25 Mar 1821, Greek War of Independence: The revolt proclaimed in the Peloponnese leads, with British, French and Russian intervention, to an independent Greek kingdom (1830–32).
• 15 Jun 1826, The Janissaries abolished: Mahmud II suppresses a Janissary revolt with artillery and dissolves the corps (the 'Auspicious Incident'), opening the way to a modern army.
• 20 Oct 1827, Battle of Navarino: A British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet in Navarino Bay, deciding Greek independence.
• 14 Sep 1829, Treaty of Adrianople: Ending the Russo-Turkish war, it gives Russia the Danube delta and Akhaltsikhe, confirms Serbian autonomy and leads to Greek independence.
• 5 Jul 1830, France takes Algiers: A French army lands at Sidi Ferruch and the dey of Algiers capitulates, beginning the French conquest of Algeria.
• 21 Dec 1832, Battle of Konya: Muhammad Ali's son Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Ottoman army; by the Convention of Kütahya (May 1833) Egypt gains Syria and Adana.
• 3 Nov 1839, The Tanzimat edict of Gülhane: Abdülmecid I's decree promises security of life and property, fair taxation and equality before the law, starting the Tanzimat reforms.
• 3 Nov 1840, Acre bombarded: Egypt leaves Syria: British and Austrian ships bombard Acre under the London Convention; Ibrahim Pasha evacuates Syria, and Muhammad Ali receives Egypt as a hereditary governorship (1841).
• 30 Nov 1853, Battle of Sinop — the Crimean War: The Russian Black Sea Fleet destroys an Ottoman squadron at Sinop; Britain and France enter the war on the Ottoman side in 1854.
• 30 Mar 1856, Treaty of Paris: Ending the Crimean War, it returns southern Bessarabia with Izmail to Moldavia, neutralises the Black Sea and admits the Ottomans to the Concert of Europe (signed in Paris).
• 9 Jun 1861, Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate: After the 1860 civil war the Powers and the Porte make Mount Lebanon an autonomous province under a Christian governor, lasting until 1915.
• 23 Dec 1876, The first Ottoman constitution: Abdülhamid II promulgates a constitution and parliament; he suspends both in 1878 and rules autocratically for thirty years.
• 20 Jul 1877, Siege of Plevna: Osman Pasha holds Plevna for five months against Russian and Romanian armies before surrendering; the Russians reach the gates of Istanbul.
• 13 Jul 1878, Congress of Berlin: Serbia, Montenegro and Romania become independent; Bulgaria autonomous and Eastern Rumelia (Plovdiv) a self-governing province; Austria occupies Bosnia, Britain Cyprus, Russia takes Kars and Batum (signed in Berlin).
• 13 Sep 1882, Tel el-Kebir: Britain occupies Egypt: A British army crushes Urabi's revolt; Egypt stays nominally Ottoman under British occupation until 1914.
• 26 Jan 1885, Khartoum falls to the Mahdi: The Mahdist army storms Khartoum and kills Gordon; Egypt loses the Sudan.
• 24 Jul 1908, Young Turk Revolution: Officers of the Committee of Union and Progress in Macedonia force Abdülhamid II to restore the constitution.
• 29 Sep 1911, Italo-Turkish War: Libya lost: Italy invades Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and occupies the Dodecanese; the Treaty of Ouchy (18 Oct 1912) cedes Libya.
• 3 Nov 1912, Siege of Edirne: Bulgarian and Serbian troops starve Edirne into surrender in the First Balkan War; Enver Bey retakes it in July 1913.
• 29 Oct 1914, The Ottoman Empire enters the First World War: The fleet under Admiral Souchon raids Russian Black Sea ports; Russia, Britain and France declare war in early November.
• 24 Apr 1915, Armenian Genocide: The arrest of Armenian leaders in Istanbul begins the deportation and massacre of the Ottoman Armenians; about one million are killed.
• 25 Apr 1915, Gallipoli campaign: Allied landings on the Gallipoli peninsula are held by the Ottoman army, including Mustafa Kemal's division; the Allies evacuate in January 1916.
• 29 Apr 1916, British surrender at Kut: Townshend's besieged army surrenders to the Ottomans after 147 days.
• 10 Jun 1916, Arab Revolt: Sharif Hussein of Mecca rises against Ottoman rule; with British support the Arab army takes Aqaba (1917) and enters Damascus (1918).
• 9 Dec 1917, Jerusalem surrenders: Allenby's Egyptian Expeditionary Force takes Jerusalem, ending four centuries of Ottoman rule there.
• 30 Oct 1918, Armistice of Mudros: Signed aboard HMS Agamemnon at Mudros on Lemnos, it ends the Ottoman war; the Allies occupy the Straits and Istanbul.
• 19 May 1919, Mustafa Kemal lands at Samsun: Kemal begins organising national resistance four days after the Greek landing at Smyrna; the Turkish War of Independence starts.
• 23 Apr 1920, Grand National Assembly opens in Ankara: Deputies escaping the Allied occupation of Istanbul form a new government in Ankara under Mustafa Kemal.
• 10 Aug 1920, Treaty of Sèvres: The Sultan's government accepts the partition of Anatolia among Greece, Armenia, Italy, France and a Kurdish zone; the Ankara government rejects it and it is never ratified.
• 23 Aug 1921, Battle of the Sakarya: The Turkish army halts the Greek advance on Ankara in a 22-day battle; the Greeks withdraw to Eskişehir and Afyon.
• 13 Oct 1921, Treaty of Kars: Ankara and the Soviet Caucasian republics fix the eastern frontier: Kars and Ardahan to Turkey, Batum to Soviet Georgia.
• 26 Aug 1922, Great Offensive: Dumlupınar: The Turkish army breaks the Greek front; İzmir is retaken on 9 September and the Greek army leaves Anatolia.
• 1 Nov 1922, The sultanate abolished: The Grand National Assembly abolishes the Ottoman sultanate; Mehmed VI leaves Istanbul on a British warship on 17 November.
• 24 Jul 1923, Treaty of Lausanne: Signed in Lausanne, it recognises Turkey's independence and borders (with Imbros and Tenedos), abolishes the capitulations and provides for a Greek–Turkish population exchange.
• 29 Oct 1923, Republic of Turkey proclaimed: Ankara becomes the capital and Mustafa Kemal the first president; the caliphate is abolished on 3 March 1924.
• 29 Jun 1939, Hatay joins Turkey: The Sanjak of Alexandretta, autonomous as the Hatay State since 1938, is annexed by Turkey after an agreement with France.