About this map
Five centuries of North America in one animation: from a continent held wall to wall by Native nations, through the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, Swedish and Russian footholds, to the United States, Canada and Mexico of today. The colours show who really held the ground: a Native nation until its land was settled, conquered or signed away by treaty; a colonial power only around its towns, forts and missions and on land it had taken. The ribbons are the borders the powers claimed on paper: New Spain, New France and Louisiana, New Netherland, New Sweden, the British colonies and Rupert's Land, Russian America, and the United States from 1776. Watch the Dutch on the Hudson (1624–1664, and once more in 1673–74), the fall of Huronia, the Pueblo Revolt, the Proclamation Line, the treaty cessions rolling west from 1784, the removals to Indian Territory, and the reservations that remain. How to read it. Inside the United States, Native land follows the 718 cessions that Charles Royce mapped in 1899, each with the legal date of its treaty or act; land therefore often stays Native on the map after settlers had in fact overrun it, and the Comanche plains are dated to their real loss in 1875. Before the treaties, a nation's country is the land nearest to its known villages: an approximation, since borders between nations were zones, not lines, and many smaller peoples are grouped with their neighbours. Colonial areas are circles around settlements that widen with age. Today's reservations (United States) and reserves (Canada) of about 150 km² and more are drawn, together with the lands that modern treaties gave back into Inuit, Dene and Cree ownership: Inuvialuit (1984), Nunavut (1993), Gwich'in, Sahtu, Tłı̨chǫ, the Yukon First Nations and the James Bay Cree, each from the year of its agreement. Thousands of smaller reserves are too small to show at this scale. Alaska counts as Native land until the Claims Settlement Act of 1971, Hawaiʻi as a Native kingdom until 1893. Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean are drawn more coarsely (Canada by treaty area, Mexico by state). The first Europeans in North America were the Norse, around the year 1000 in Newfoundland; the animation starts with Columbus's landfall. Dates and places come from standard reference works; the towns and forts were re-checked against their articles, the smallest posts and the Native village points were not. Sources: C. C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (1899; digital edition by the US Forest Service); US Census Bureau, American Indian areas (2023); Natural Resources Canada, Aboriginal Lands of Canada Legislative Boundaries; Natural Earth; Wikipedia articles on the settlements, treaties and nations.
Text version: https://www.movingpolygons.com/map/chrisjager/the-making-of-the-united-states-14922025-native-nations-and-colonial-powers.md
Timeline
| Date | What the map shows |
|---|---|
| 12 Oct 1492 | 1492 · Native North America |
| 2 Apr 1513 | 1513 · Ponce de León lands in Florida |
| 13 Aug 1521 | 1521 · Cortés takes Tenochtitlan |
| 28 Sep 1542 | 1539–42 · De Soto, Coronado, Cabrillo explore |
| 8 Sep 1565 | 1565 · St. Augustine, the first lasting town |
| 11 Jul 1598 | 1598 · Oñate founds Spanish New Mexico |
| 3 Jul 1608 | 1607–08 · Jamestown and Quebec |
| 24 May 1626 | 1620–26 · Plymouth; the Dutch on Manhattan |
| 29 Mar 1638 | 1630–38 · Puritan Boston; New Sweden |
| 16 Mar 1650 | 1649–50 · The Iroquois destroy Huronia |
| 15 Sep 1655 | 1655 · Stuyvesant takes New Sweden |
| 1 Oct 1664 | 1664 · New Amsterdam becomes New York |
| 9 Aug 1673 | 1673 · The Dutch retake New York |
| 12 Aug 1676 | 1674–76 · Dutch out; King Philip's War |
| 27 Oct 1682 | 1680–82 · Pueblo Revolt; La Salle; Philadelphia |
| 4 Aug 1701 | 1692–1701 · New Mexico retaken; Detroit |
| 11 Apr 1713 | 1713 · Utrecht: Acadia and Hudson Bay British |
| 1 Jun 1722 | 1716–22 · New Orleans and San Antonio |
| 12 Feb 1733 | 1733 · Georgia, the thirteenth colony |
| 28 May 1754 | 1754 · Eve of the French and Indian War |
| 7 Oct 1763 | 1763 · France leaves; the Proclamation Line |
| 1 Apr 1770 | 1768–70 · Fort Stanwix line; California missions |
| 4 Jul 1776 | 1776 · Declaration of Independence |
| 3 Sep 1783 | 1783 · Treaty of Paris: US to the Mississippi |
| 3 Aug 1795 | 1795 · Treaty of Greenville opens Ohio |
| 20 Dec 1803 | 1803 · The Louisiana Purchase |
| 27 Oct 1810 | 1804–10 · Treaties clear Indiana and Michigan |
| 9 Aug 1814 | 1814 · Fort Jackson: the Creeks lose half |
| 27 Sep 1821 | 1819–21 · Florida ceded; Mexico independent |
| 19 Aug 1825 | 1825 · Osage and Kansa cede the central Plains |
| 28 May 1830 | 1830 · Indian Removal Act |
| 21 Apr 1836 | 1836 · Texas breaks from Mexico |
| 1840 | 1838–39 · Trail of Tears: the Southeast emptied |
| 15 Jun 1846 | 1845–46 · Texas annexed; Oregon divided |
| 2 Feb 1848 | 1848 · Guadalupe Hidalgo: Mexico loses the north |
| 30 Dec 1853 | 1851–53 · Fort Laramie treaty; Gadsden Purchase |
| 1 Jun 1858 | 1854–58 · Treaties sweep the Plains and Northwest |
| 21 Jul 1861 | 1861 · Eleven states secede |
| 23 Jun 1865 | 1865 · The Union restored |
| 6 Nov 1868 | 1867–68 · Alaska; Canada; Fort Laramie treaty |
| 5 Oct 1877 | 1876–77 · Little Bighorn; the Black Hills taken |
| 8 Feb 1887 | 1886–87 · Geronimo surrenders; the Dawes Act |
| 29 Dec 1890 | 1889–90 · Oklahoma land run; Wounded Knee |
| 12 Aug 1898 | 1898 · Hawaii, Puerto Rico; Klondike gold rush |
| 16 Nov 1907 | 1907 · Oklahoma: Indian Territory dissolved |
| 14 Feb 1912 | 1912 · Forty-eight states |
| 18 Jun 1934 | 1934 · Indian Reorganization Act ends allotment |
| 21 Aug 1959 | 1959 · Alaska and Hawaii become states |
| 18 Dec 1971 | 1971 · Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act |
| 1 Apr 1999 | 1999 · Nunavut; self-determination era |
| 2025 | Today · 574 recognized tribes, 326 reservations |
Layers
Spain (New Spain, Florida, Louisiana 1763–1800) · France (New France, Louisiana) · Dutch Republic (New Netherland) · Sweden (New Sweden) · England → Great Britain (colonies, British North America) · Russia (Russian America) · Denmark (Danish West Indies) · Mexico · Republic of Texas (1836–1845) · Canada (from 1867) · Other independent states (Haiti, Dominican Rep., Cuba, Jamaica, Bahamas, Hawaii 1893–98) · United States: territories and unorganized land · United States: states · Confederate States (1861–1865) · Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy) · Wendat (Huron), Petun, Neutral, Erie → Wyandot · Susquehannock · Cherokee · Tuscarora · Lenape (Delaware) and Munsee · Mahican (Mohican) · Wampanoag, Narragansett, Pequot, Massachusett and neighbours · Wabanaki (Abenaki, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet, Mi'kmaq) · Powhatan and Chesapeake Algonquians · Shawnee · Miami and Illinois Confederation · Anishinaabe (Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi) · Algonquin, Nipissing, Atikamekw · Menominee · Sauk, Meskwaki (Fox), Kickapoo · Beothuk · Innu and Naskapi · Cree · Blackfoot Confederacy and Gros Ventre · Cheyenne and Arapaho · Očhéthi Šakówiŋ (Sioux: Dakota, Lakota, Nakota) · Assiniboine (Nakoda) · Crow (Apsáalooke) · Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara · Omaha, Ponca, Kansa, Oto, Missouria, Iowa · Osage · Quapaw · Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) · Catawba and the Carolina Siouans · Muscogee (Creek) Confederacy · Seminole · Choctaw · Chickasaw · Natchez, Tunica, Houma and the lower Mississippi · Timucua, Apalachee, Calusa, Guale · Caddo and Wichita · Pawnee · Karankawa, Tonkawa, Coahuiltecan · Comanche and Kiowa · Ute · Shoshone and Bannock · Paiute and Washoe · O'odham (Pima, Tohono O'odham) and Maricopa · Pueblo peoples, Hopi, Zuni · Quechan, Mohave, Hualapai, Kumeyaay (Yuman peoples) · Diné (Navajo) · Apache (Ndé) · Dene (northern Athabaskans) · Nez Perce, Yakama, Cayuse, Umatilla · Interior Salish and Kootenai (Flathead, Spokane, Colville …) · Coast Salish, Chinook, Makah · Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka'wakw, Nuu-chah-nulth · Klamath, Modoc, Kalapuya and western Oregon peoples · California peoples (Chumash, Miwok, Yokuts, Pomo, Ohlone …) · Inuit, Iñupiat, Yup'ik · Unangan (Aleut) and Alutiiq · Mexica (Aztec) Triple Alliance · Tlaxcala · Purépecha (Tarascan) state · Maya · Mixtec and Zapotec · Huastec, Totonac, Otomi and other Mesoamerican peoples · Chichimeca peoples (Zacateco, Guachichil, Pame) · Rarámuri, Tepehuan, Yaqui, Mayo, Ópata, Cochimí · Taíno and Lucayan · Hawaiʻi: chiefdoms → Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (1795–1893) · Claimed by Spain · Claimed by Spain · Claimed by France · Claimed by France · Claimed by the Dutch Republic: New Netherland · Claimed by the Dutch Republic: New Netherland · Claimed by Sweden: New Sweden · Claimed by England / Great Britain · Claimed by England / Great Britain · Claimed by Russia · Borders of Mexico · Borders of Mexico · Borders claimed by the Republic of Texas · Borders of Canada · Borders of Canada · Borders of the United States · Borders of the United States
Events
- 12 Oct 1492, Columbus lands in the Bahamas: First landfall of the first voyage on Guanahani (Samana Cay likely); Lucayan Taino met.
- 12 Oct 1492, c. 1000 · Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows: The first known Europeans in North America: Norse Greenlanders built a base here around the year 1000 (wood felled in 1021) and left after a few years. Nothing came of it; the map starts with Columbus's landfall.
- 1 Apr 1513, Ponce de Leon reaches Florida: First recorded European landing; Calusa and Timucua repel the Spanish in 1513 and 1521.
- 13 Aug 1521, Fall of Tenochtitlan: After 93-day siege with Tlaxcalan allies and smallpox, the Aztec capital falls; New Spain begins.
- 30 May 1539, De Soto lands in Florida: 600 men begin four years through the Southeast, destroying chiefdoms.
- 7 Jul 1540, Coronado reaches Zuni (Hawikuh): Cities of Cibola turn out to be Zuni pueblos; expeditions go on to the Grand Canyon and Tiguex.
- 8 Sep 1565, Spanish found St Augustine: Menendez builds the permanent Spanish base of La Florida, then destroys French Fort Caroline.
- 14 May 1607, Jamestown founded: 104 colonists settle Jamestown Island; first permanent English colony in America.
- 3 Jul 1608, Champlain founds Quebec: Champlain builds the habitation at the narrows of the St Lawrence; start of permanent New France.
- 11 Sep 1609, Hudson sails the Halve Maen into New York Bay: Henry Hudson, for the Dutch East India Company, explores the river and reaches the Albany area.
- 11 Nov 1620, Mayflower Compact: Pilgrims sign a self-governing compact; landing at Plymouth in December.
- 4 May 1626, Purchase of Manhattan: Peter Minuit is said to buy Manhattan for 60 guilders of goods; Fort Amsterdam is built.
- 26 May 1637, Pequot War, Mystic massacre: English and Narragansett/Mohegan allies burn the Pequot fort; hundreds die. Pequot nation broken.
- 16 Mar 1649, Wendat Confederacy destroyed: Haudenosaunee take St Ignace and St Louis; the Wendat burn their towns and scatter; Petun fall in Dec 1649.
- 15 Sep 1655, Dutch conquer New Sweden: Stuyvesant takes Fort Christina; New Sweden ends after 17 years.
- 29 Aug 1664, English take New Amsterdam: Stuyvesant yields to Nicolls' four frigates without a fight; New York named for the Duke of York.
- 9 Aug 1673, Dutch reconquer New York: Dutch squadron under Binckes and Evertsen retakes New York as New Orange; Anthony Colve is governor.
- 19 Feb 1674, Treaty of Westminster: Third Anglo-Dutch War ends; New Netherland returned to England.
- 20 Jun 1675, King Philip's War begins: Wampanoag attack on Swansea starts the bloodiest war per capita in colonial New England.
- 10 Aug 1680, Pueblo Revolt: Popay leads Pueblos, Navajo allies and Apache; Spaniards flee Santa Fe to El Paso; 12 years free.
- 9 Apr 1682, La Salle reaches the Gulf of Mexico: La Salle claims the whole Mississippi basin as Louisiana.
- 4 Aug 1701, Great Peace of Montreal: French and about 40 Native nations, including the Haudenosaunee, end the Beaver Wars.
- 7 May 1718, New Orleans founded: Bienville founds the city for the Company of the Indies.
- 16 Jul 1741, Bering sights Alaska: Bering and Chirikov find the North American coast; sea otter fur starts Russian America.
- 13 Sep 1759, Plains of Abraham: Wolfe defeats Montcalm; Quebec capitulates 18 September.
- 9 May 1763, Pontiac's War begins: Pontiac's confederacy of Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawatomi and Wyandot rises against British posts.
- 16 Jul 1769, Serra founds Mission San Diego: Portola and Serra begin the Alta California chain.
- 4 Jul 1776, Declaration of Independence: Congress adopts the Declaration in Philadelphia.
- 19 Oct 1781, Yorktown: Cornwallis surrenders to Washington and Rochambeau.
- 3 Sep 1783, Treaty of Paris (1783): Britain recognises the United States to the Mississippi; Florida to Spain.
- 20 Aug 1794, Battle of Fallen Timbers: Wayne defeats the Northwest Confederacy near the Maumee.
- 30 Apr 1803, Louisiana Purchase signed: France sells Louisiana to the USA for 80 million francs; transfer 20 December 1803.
- 15 Nov 1805, Lewis and Clark reach the Pacific: The Corps of Discovery, sent to explore the Louisiana Purchase, reaches the mouth of the Columbia with the help of Mandan, Shoshone, Nez Perce and Chinook hosts and winters at Fort Clatsop.
- 7 Nov 1811, Battle of Tippecanoe: Harrison defeats Tenskwatawa and burns Prophetstown.
- 28 May 1830, Indian Removal Act: Jackson signs the law that moves the Five Tribes west of the Mississippi.
- 6 Mar 1836, Fall of the Alamo: Santa Anna's army storms the mission; all defenders killed.
- 1 May 1838, Fort Cass roundup (Trail of Tears): Army collects 16,000 Cherokee in camps; 4,000 die on the march.
- 24 Jan 1848, Gold found at Sutter's Mill: Gold Rush brings 300,000 to California by 1855.
- 2 Feb 1848, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Mexico cedes California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, parts of CO, WY; Rio Grande border recognised.
- 12 Apr 1861, Fort Sumter fired on: Confederate guns open the Civil War. Eleven states have left or are leaving the Union.
- 18 Aug 1862, Dakota War of 1862: Dakota uprising in Minnesota; 38 hanged at Mankato, Dakota expelled. Eastern researcher has details.
- 1 Mar 1864, Long Walk of the Navajo: After Kit Carson's scorched-earth campaign at Canyon de Chelly, ~9,000 Navajo march 300 miles to Bosque Redondo.
- 29 Nov 1864, Sand Creek massacre: Colorado volunteers kill ~160-230 Cheyenne and Arapaho, mostly women and children, under Black Kettle.
- 9 Apr 1865, Lee surrenders at Appomattox: The Army of Northern Virginia surrenders; the Confederacy collapses within weeks.
- 30 Mar 1867, Alaska Purchase signed: Seward and Stoeckl agree on 7.2 million dollars; flag changes at Sitka 18 October.
- 29 Apr 1868, Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868): Great Sioux Reservation west of the Missouri incl. the Black Hills; Bozeman Trail forts abandoned.
- 10 May 1869, Golden Spike at Promontory: The first transcontinental railroad is complete. Rails bring settlers, soldiers and hide hunters to the Plains; the bison herds are gone within fifteen years.
- 25 Jun 1876, Little Bighorn: Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho annihilate Custer's 7th Cavalry; Sioux War ends in defeat 1877.
- 5 Oct 1877, Battle of Bear Paw: Joseph surrenders: Joseph surrenders 40 miles from Canada: 'I will fight no more forever.'
- 4 Sep 1886, Geronimo surrenders: Chiricahua Apache surrender at Skeleton Canyon; Geronimo and band exiled to Florida.
- 29 Dec 1890, Wounded Knee Massacre: 7th Cavalry kills ~250 Lakota under Spotted Elk; end of the Plains Wars.
- 17 Jan 1893, Hawaiian Kingdom overthrown: Sugar planters backed by US marines depose Queen Liliʻuokalani. The Republic of Hawaii follows, and annexation by the United States in 1898.
- 3 Jul 1898, San Juan Hill and Santiago de Cuba: US land victory and Spanish fleet destroyed; Cuba lost.
- 2 Jun 1924, Indian Citizenship Act: All Natives born in the USA become citizens; states still bar voting until 1948 (Arizona/New Mexico).
- 18 Jun 1934, Indian Reorganization Act: Ends allotment, restores tribal governments.
- 20 Nov 1969, Alcatraz occupation: Indians of All Tribes hold the island for 19 months. The Red Power movement turns federal policy from termination to self-determination.
- 18 Dec 1971, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: 44 million acres and $963 million to Native corporations; extinguishes aboriginal title in Alaska.
- 27 Feb 1973, Occupation of Wounded Knee: AIM and Oglala Lakota hold Wounded Knee for 71 days.
- 1 Apr 1999, Nunavut created: Inuit-majority territory carved from the NWT after the 1993 land claim agreement.
- 9 Jul 2020, McGirt v. Oklahoma: Supreme Court holds the Muscogee reservation was never disestablished; eastern Oklahoma remains Indian Country.