# Europe 1815–1914: Empires and Nation States > Interactive animated map on Moving Polygons by chrisjager, 9 Jun 1815 – 28 Jun 1914: 52 keyframes, 54 layers, 303 events. - Map: https://www.movingpolygons.com/map/chrisjager/europe-18151914-empires-and-nation-states - Article: [Europe 1815–1914: How Nationalism Redrew the Map Between Vienna and Sarajevo](https://www.movingpolygons.com/blog/europe-1815-1914-empires-and-nation-states) - Embed: `` - Last updated: 2026-10-06 ## About this map From the Congress of Vienna to Sarajevo: a century of nationalism redraws Europe. Italy and Germany unite out of a patchwork of kingdoms and duchies, the multi-ethnic Ottoman Empire is pushed out of the Balkans by new nation states (Greece, Serbia, Romania, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania), and the Austrian Empire becomes the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Fifty moments show the treaties, wars, revolutions and uprisings in between. Two red overlays mark foreign army occupations and uprisings or revolutionary zones; border bands show the Zollverein (1834–66) and the North German Confederation (1867–70). Borders: OpenHistoricalMap (CC0) where available, otherwise modern provinces (Natural Earth) and Cliopatria (CC BY 4.0); front lines, occupation and uprising zones are approximate. Sources: the treaties from Vienna (1815) to Bucharest (1913), among them Adrianople (1829), London (1832, 1839, 1864, 1913), Zurich and Turin (1859–60), Vienna, Gastein and Prague (1864–66), Frankfurt (1871), San Stefano and Berlin (1878), Constantinople (1881, 1897, 1913); event details from Wikipedia and standard histories. ## Timeline The map animates between these keyframes. | Date | What the map shows | | --- | --- | | 9 Jun 1815 | Jun 1815 · Congress of Vienna redraws Europe | | 13 Jan 1822 | Jan 1822 · Greeks declare independence | | 5 Jun 1827 | Jun 1827 · Acropolis falls; Greek revolt at low | | 1 Nov 1828 | Nov 1828 · French free the Morea; Russia at war | | 14 Sep 1829 | Sep 1829 · Treaty of Adrianople | | 20 Dec 1830 | Dec 1830 · Belgium breaks away; Poland rises | | 1 Mar 1831 | Mar 1831 · Revolts in Poland and central Italy | | 21 Jul 1832 | Jul 1832 · Kingdom of Greece; Poland crushed | | 1834 | Jan 1834 · Zollverein starts; Serbia grows | | 19 Apr 1839 | Apr 1839 · Treaty of London: Belgium recognised | | 16 Nov 1846 | Nov 1846 · Austria annexes Kraków | | 17 Dec 1847 | Dec 1847 · Lucca to Tuscany; Swiss civil war | | 25 Mar 1848 | Mar 1848 · Springtime of Peoples: Europe in revolt | | 9 Aug 1848 | Aug 1848 · Austria retakes Lombardy | | 2 Dec 1848 | Dec 1848 · Franz Joseph; Hungary at war | | 14 Apr 1849 | Apr 1849 · Hungary independent; Roman Republic | | 24 Aug 1849 | Aug 1849 · Revolutions crushed; Venice falls | | 14 Sep 1854 | Sep 1854 · Crimean War: Allies land in Crimea | | 30 Mar 1856 | Mar 1856 · Peace of Paris: Russia loses the Danube | | 5 Feb 1859 | Feb 1859 · Cuza unites Moldavia and Wallachia | | 11 Jul 1859 | Jul 1859 · Villafranca: Lombardy to Sardinia | | 24 Mar 1860 | Mar 1860 · Central Italy joins; Nice to France | | 18 Sep 1860 | Sep 1860 · Garibaldi takes the South | | 17 Mar 1861 | Mar 1861 · Kingdom of Italy proclaimed | | 1 May 1863 | May 1863 · January Uprising in Russian Poland | | 20 Jul 1864 | Jul 1864 · Prussia and Austria beat Denmark | | 14 Aug 1865 | Aug 1865 · Gastein: the duchies are split | | 22 Jul 1866 | Jul 1866 · Prussia defeats Austria | | 22 Oct 1866 | Oct 1866 · Venetia to Italy; Prussia annexes | | 1 Jul 1867 | Jul 1867 · North German union; Austria-Hungary | | 20 Sep 1870 | Sep 1870 · Paris besieged; Italians take Rome | | 28 Jan 1871 | Jan 1871 · German Empire proclaimed; armistice | | 10 May 1871 | May 1871 · Frankfurt: Alsace-Lorraine to Germany | | 16 Sep 1873 | Sep 1873 · Last Germans leave France; Carlist war | | 1 Sep 1875 | Sep 1875 · Herzegovina rises; Carlist war in Spain | | 1 Aug 1876 | Aug 1876 · Serbia and Montenegro at war | | 10 Dec 1877 | Dec 1877 · Plevna falls to Russia | | 3 Mar 1878 | Mar 1878 · San Stefano: a Big Bulgaria | | 13 Jul 1878 | Jul 1878 · Congress of Berlin | | 15 Nov 1881 | Nov 1881 · Thessaly to Greece; Bosnia occupied | | 18 Sep 1885 | Sep 1885 · Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia unite | | 20 May 1897 | May 1897 · Ottomans hold Thessaly; Crete in revolt | | 21 Dec 1898 | Dec 1898 · Cretan State; Thessaly back to Greece | | 10 Aug 1903 | Aug 1903 · Ilinden: the Kruševo Republic | | 20 Dec 1905 | Dec 1905 · Norway free; revolution in Russia | | 6 Oct 1908 | Oct 1908 · Bulgaria free, Bosnia annexed | | 15 Jun 1911 | Jun 1911 · Albanian Highlands revolt | | 15 Aug 1912 | Aug 1912 · Albanian revolt; Italy takes Rhodes | | 3 Dec 1912 | Dec 1912 · First Balkan War: Ottomans retreat | | 30 May 1913 | May 1913 · Treaty of London | | 10 Aug 1913 | Aug 1913 · Treaty of Bucharest | | 28 Jun 1914 | Jun 1914 · Sarajevo: the road to war | ## Layers | Layer | First shown | Last keyframe | | --- | --- | --- | | Russian Empire | 9 Jun 1815 | 3 Mar 1878 | | Kingdom of Poland (Russian) | 9 Jun 1815 | 1834 | | Grand Duchy of Finland (Russian) | 9 Jun 1815 | 9 Jun 1815 | | Ottoman Empire | 9 Jun 1815 | 10 Aug 1913 | | Other German states (German Confederation) | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Prussia → German Empire | 9 Jun 1815 | 10 May 1871 | | Kingdom of Bavaria | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Kingdom of Württemberg | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Grand Duchy of Baden | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Kingdom of Saxony | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Kingdom of Hanover | 9 Jun 1815 | 22 Oct 1866 | | Electorate of Hesse (Hesse-Kassel) | 9 Jun 1815 | 22 Oct 1866 | | Grand Duchy of Hesse (Hesse-Darmstadt) | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Duchy of Nassau | 9 Jun 1815 | 22 Oct 1866 | | Mecklenburg | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Grand Duchy of Oldenburg | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Duchy of Brunswick | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Thuringian states | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Free cities (Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck, Frankfurt) | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | United Kingdom | 9 Jun 1815 | 13 Jul 1878 | | France | 9 Jun 1815 | 10 May 1871 | | Spain | 9 Jun 1815 | 9 Jun 1815 | | Portugal | 9 Jun 1815 | 9 Jun 1815 | | Switzerland | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Netherlands | 9 Jun 1815 | 28 Jan 1871 | | Belgium | 20 Dec 1830 | 19 Apr 1839 | | Luxembourg (Dutch king until 1890) | 9 Jun 1815 | 19 Apr 1839 | | Denmark | 9 Jun 1815 | 14 Aug 1865 | | Sweden | 9 Jun 1815 | 9 Jun 1815 | | Norway (union with Sweden until 1905) | 9 Jun 1815 | 20 Dec 1905 | | Austrian Empire → Austria-Hungary | 9 Jun 1815 | 3 Dec 1912 | | Hungary (revolutionary state 1848–49; kingdom in Austria-Hungary from 1867) | 25 Mar 1848 | 3 Dec 1912 | | Bosnia-Herzegovina (Austro-Hungarian occupation) | 15 Nov 1881 | 6 Oct 1908 | | Free City of Kraków | 9 Jun 1815 | 16 Nov 1846 | | Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (Austrian) | 9 Jun 1815 | 22 Oct 1866 | | Sardinia-Piedmont → Kingdom of Italy | 9 Jun 1815 | 15 Aug 1912 | | Papal States | 9 Jun 1815 | 20 Sep 1870 | | Kingdom of the Two Sicilies | 9 Jun 1815 | 17 Mar 1861 | | Tuscany, Parma and Modena | 9 Jun 1815 | 24 Mar 1860 | | Duchy of Lucca | 9 Jun 1815 | 17 Dec 1847 | | Serbia | 9 Jun 1815 | 30 May 1913 | | Montenegro | 9 Jun 1815 | 30 May 1913 | | Wallachia → United Principalities → Romania | 9 Jun 1815 | 10 Aug 1913 | | Principality of Moldavia | 9 Jun 1815 | 5 Feb 1859 | | Bulgaria | 3 Mar 1878 | 10 Aug 1913 | | Eastern Rumelia (autonomous) | 13 Jul 1878 | 18 Sep 1885 | | Greek insurgents → Kingdom of Greece | 13 Jan 1822 | 28 Jun 1914 | | Ionian Islands (British protectorate) | 9 Jun 1815 | 20 Jul 1864 | | Cretan State (autonomous) | 21 Dec 1898 | 3 Dec 1912 | | Albania | 3 Dec 1912 | 28 Jun 1914 | | Foreign army occupation | 1 Nov 1828 | 28 Jun 1914 | | Uprisings and revolutionary zones | 20 Dec 1830 | 28 Jun 1914 | | Zollverein (German customs union) border | 1834 | 1 Jul 1867 | | North German Confederation (1867–71) border | 1 Jul 1867 | 28 Jan 1871 | ## Events - **9 Jun 1815, Congress of Vienna: Final Act**: The victors over Napoleon restore monarchies and create the German Confederation, Congress Poland and the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. National wishes are ignored. - **9 Jun 1815, Second Serbian Uprising**: Miloš Obrenović leads the Serbs against Ottoman rule again (since April 1815) and wins de facto autonomy for the Belgrade pashalik. - **18 Jun 1815, Battle of Waterloo**: Wellington and Blücher defeat Napoleon, ending the Hundred Days. - **26 Sep 1815, Holy Alliance**: Russia, Austria and Prussia pledge to defend monarchy and religion; it becomes the symbol of the conservative order. - **27 Nov 1815, Congress Poland gets a constitution**: Tsar Alexander I, as King of Poland, grants the Kingdom its own constitution, army and Sejm. - **18 Oct 1817, Wartburg Festival**: German students call for national unity and burn symbols of reaction at Wartburg castle. - **6 Nov 1817, Miloš hereditary Prince of Serbia**: A Serbian assembly makes Miloš Obrenović hereditary prince; the Sultan recognises the title only in 1830. - **20 Sep 1819, Carlsbad Decrees**: Metternich has the German Confederation impose censorship and police the universities to suppress the national movement. - **1820, Liberal revolution in Spain**: Rafael del Riego's army revolts; Ferdinand VII must accept the 1812 constitution. - **2 Jul 1820, Revolution in Naples**: Carbonari officers force a constitution on the King of the Two Sicilies; Austrian troops crush it in March 1821. - **6 Mar 1821, Ypsilantis invades Moldavia**: Alexander Ypsilantis of the Filiki Eteria crosses the Prut to start a Greek uprising; crushed at Drăgășani in June. - **10 Mar 1821, Revolution in Piedmont**: Officers at Alessandria proclaim a constitution and hope to fight Austria for Italy; defeated at Novara in April. - **25 Mar 1821, Greek revolt in the Morea**: Bishop Germanos raises the banner of revolt at Agia Lavra; the Peloponnese rises against Ottoman rule. - **5 Oct 1821, Fall of Tripolitsa**: Kolokotronis storms the Ottoman capital of the Morea; thousands of Muslims and Jews are killed. - **13 Jan 1822, Greek independence declared**: The First National Assembly at Epidaurus proclaims the independence and constitution of Greece. - **11 Apr 1822, Chios massacre**: Ottoman troops kill or enslave tens of thousands on Chios, shocking European opinion. - **31 Aug 1823, French intervention in Spain**: French troops storm the Trocadero near Cádiz and restore Ferdinand VII's absolute rule. - **24 Feb 1825, Ibrahim Pasha lands in the Morea**: Egypt's army under Ibrahim turns the war; most of the Peloponnese is retaken in 1825. - **26 Dec 1825, Decembrist revolt**: Liberal officers rise in St Petersburg when Nicholas I takes the throne; crushed the same day. - **22 Apr 1826, Exodus from Missolonghi**: After a year's siege the starving defenders break out and are mostly killed; Byron had died here in 1824. - **7 Oct 1826, Akkerman Convention**: Under Russian pressure the Sultan confirms Serbian autonomy and promises Serbia its lost districts. - **5 Jun 1827, Acropolis surrenders**: The Greek garrison in Athens capitulates to Reshid Pasha; the revolt is reduced to the Argolid, Mani and the islands. - **20 Oct 1827, Battle of Navarino**: A British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet, saving the Greek revolt. - **20 Jan 1828, Kapodistrias governs Greece**: Ioannis Kapodistrias arrives in Nafplio as the first governor of Greece. - **30 Aug 1828, French Morea expedition**: 14,000 French troops land; Ibrahim agrees to leave and the last Ottoman forts in the Peloponnese fall by November. - **11 Oct 1828, Russians take Varna**: In the Russo-Turkish War the Russian army and fleet take the Black Sea fortress. - **13 Apr 1829, Catholic emancipation**: Daniel O'Connell's mass movement in Ireland forces Parliament to let Catholics sit at Westminster. - **12 Sep 1829, Battle of Petra**: Dimitrios Ypsilantis's Greek army defeats the last Ottoman force in central Greece. - **14 Sep 1829, Treaty of Adrianople**: After the Russian army reaches Adrianople the Sultan accepts the Powers' settlement for Greece, confirms Serbian autonomy and gives Russia the Danube delta. - **3 Feb 1830, London Protocol**: Britain, France and Russia declare Greece a fully independent state under their protection. - **27 Jul 1830, July Revolution in Paris**: Three days of street fighting topple Charles X; Louis-Philippe becomes King of the French and revolts spread across Europe. - **25 Aug 1830, Brussels opera riot**: A performance of La Muette de Portici sparks the Belgian uprising against Dutch rule. - **4 Oct 1830, Belgian independence declared**: After the Dutch army is driven from Brussels, a provisional government proclaims Belgian independence. - **31 Oct 1830, Njegoš rules Montenegro**: Petar II Petrović-Njegoš, poet and prince-bishop, succeeds his uncle and starts building a Montenegrin state. - **29 Nov 1830, November Uprising in Warsaw**: Young officers storm the Belvedere; the Russian garrison leaves and the Kingdom of Poland rises against the Tsar. - **25 Jan 1831, Sejm dethrones Nicholas I**: The Polish parliament declares the Romanovs deposed as kings of Poland; war with Russia follows. - **4 Feb 1831, Revolt in Modena and Bologna**: Risings drive out the Duke of Modena and the papal legates; on 26 Feb Bologna proclaims the United Italian Provinces. - **25 Feb 1831, Battle of Grochów**: The Poles stop the main Russian army just east of Warsaw. - **21 Mar 1831, Austrians crush the Italian revolts**: Austrian troops retake Modena, Parma and Bologna; Ancona falls on 29 March. - **25 Mar 1831, Uprising spreads to Lithuania**: Insurgents rise in Samogitia and fight in Lithuania until the summer. - **26 May 1831, Battle of Ostrołęka**: Paskevich defeats the main Polish army on the Narew, the turning point of the war. - **11 Jul 1831, Young Italy founded**: In exile in Marseille, Giuseppe Mazzini founds a secret society for a united, republican Italy. - **21 Jul 1831, Leopold I, King of the Belgians**: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg swears the constitution in Brussels; a French army repels the Dutch Ten Days' Campaign in August. - **8 Sep 1831, Fall of Warsaw**: Russian troops storm Warsaw; the Polish army crosses into Prussia in October. - **15 Oct 1831, The Great Emigration**: Thousands of Polish soldiers, politicians and writers such as Mickiewicz and Chopin settle in the West, mostly in Paris. - **26 Feb 1832, Organic Statute for Poland**: Nicholas I abolishes the Polish constitution, Sejm and army; the Kingdom becomes a Russian province in practice. - **27 May 1832, Hambach Festival**: About 30,000 people call for German unity and liberty under the black-red-gold flag; repression follows. - **21 Jul 1832, Treaty of Constantinople**: The Sultan accepts an independent Kingdom of Greece with the Arta–Volos border. - **23 Dec 1832, Antwerp citadel surrenders**: After a French siege the last Dutch garrison in Belgian territory gives up. - **6 Feb 1833, King Otto lands at Nafplio**: The Bavarian prince Otto arrives to rule Greece; Athens becomes the capital in 1834. - **1 Dec 1833, Serbia gains six districts**: A Sultan's decree adds Krajina, Crna Reka, Paraćin, Kruševac and other districts to the Principality of Serbia. - **1834, Zollverein begins**: The German Customs Union under Prussian lead removes tariffs between 18 states; Austria stays outside. - **6 Jan 1835, Illyrian movement**: Ljudevit Gaj's newspaper in Zagreb promotes a common South Slav language and Croatian national revival. - **15 Feb 1835, Sretenje Constitution in Serbia**: Prince Miloš proclaims Serbia's first constitution at Kragujevac; Ottoman and Russian pressure force its repeal. - **18 Nov 1837, The Göttingen Seven**: Seven professors, among them the Brothers Grimm, are dismissed for protesting against the King of Hanover's abolition of the constitution. - **19 Apr 1839, Treaty of London**: The powers recognise Belgium and guarantee its neutrality; Limburg and Luxembourg are split. - **7 Oct 1840, Rhine crisis**: French claims to the Rhine border provoke a wave of German nationalist songs such as Die Wacht am Rhein. - **3 Sep 1843, Greek constitution**: Army and people force King Otto to grant a constitution and parliament. - **13 Nov 1844, Hungarian becomes official language**: The Diet at Pozsony makes Hungarian the language of administration and schools; Kossuth leads the national campaign. - **18 Feb 1846, Galician slaughter**: Peasants near Tarnów kill Polish noble landlords; Austria uses the massacre to crush the Polish rising. - **22 Feb 1846, Kraków uprising**: Poles proclaim a national government in the Free City; Austrian troops end it within a week. - **16 Jun 1846, Pius IX elected**: The new pope's amnesty and reforms raise hopes of an Italian federation under papal lead. - **16 Nov 1846, Kraków annexed**: Austria, Russia and Prussia end the Free City; it becomes the Austrian Grand Duchy of Kraków. - **5 Oct 1847, Lucca joins Tuscany**: Under the 1844 Treaty of Florence the Duke of Lucca cedes his duchy to Tuscany. - **4 Nov 1847, Sonderbund War**: The Swiss federal army under Dufour defeats the Catholic Sonderbund in under four weeks, opening the way to a federal state. - **12 Jan 1848, Palermo rises**: Sicily revolts against Naples, the first of the 1848 revolutions; the island declares independence. - **24 Feb 1848, February Revolution in Paris**: King Louis-Philippe falls and the Second Republic is proclaimed; the news sets Europe ablaze. - **13 Mar 1848, Metternich falls**: Demonstrations in Vienna force the symbol of the conservative order to resign and flee. - **15 Mar 1848, Petőfi's National Song**: In Pest, Petőfi recites the National Song and the Twelve Points are printed; Hungary gets its own government two days later. - **18 Mar 1848, Barricades in Berlin**: Street fighting forces Frederick William IV to withdraw his troops and promise a constitution. - **18 Mar 1848, Five Days of Milan**: The Milanese drive Radetzky's army out of the city; Sardinia declares war on Austria on 23 March. - **22 Mar 1848, Republic of San Marco**: Daniele Manin proclaims the Venetian republic as the Austrian garrison leaves. - **24 Mar 1848, Schleswig-Holstein rises**: A German provisional government in Kiel rejects Danish rule; the First Schleswig War follows. - **29 Mar 1848, Posen uprising**: Poles in the Prussian Grand Duchy of Posen rise; Prussian troops crush them by May. - **11 Apr 1848, April Laws**: The king sanctions the Hungarian reform laws: serfdom ends, a responsible ministry and parliament are created. - **15 May 1848, Serbian Vojvodina proclaimed**: The Serb assembly at Sremski Karlovci declares an autonomous Vojvodina and fights the Hungarian government. - **15 May 1848, Romanian assembly at Blaj**: About 40,000 Romanians reject union of Transylvania with Hungary; Avram Iancu later leads militia in the Apuseni. - **18 May 1848, Frankfurt Parliament opens**: The first freely elected German national assembly meets in the Paulskirche to write a constitution for a united Germany. - **2 Jun 1848, Slav Congress in Prague**: Palacký calls for equal Slav nations in a federal Austria; Windischgrätz bombards Prague after the June rising. - **21 Jun 1848, Wallachian revolution**: The Islaz Proclamation demands a constitution and land reform; a provisional government rules Bucharest until September. - **25 Jul 1848, Battle of Custoza**: Radetzky defeats Sardinia; Milan is retaken on 6 August and the Salasco armistice follows. - **11 Sep 1848, Jelačić invades Hungary**: The ban of Croatia crosses the Drava for the emperor; the Hungarians stop him at Pákozd on 29 September. - **12 Sep 1848, Swiss federal state**: After the Sonderbund war Switzerland adopts a federal constitution; Bern becomes the capital. - **6 Oct 1848, Vienna October uprising**: Viennese radicals rise against war with Hungary; Windischgrätz bombards and takes the city on 31 October. - **2 Dec 1848, Franz Joseph emperor**: Ferdinand abdicates at Olomouc for his nephew; the Hungarian parliament refuses to recognise him. - **9 Feb 1849, Roman Republic**: After the Pope's flight, an elected assembly ends his temporal rule; Mazzini leads the republic. - **23 Mar 1849, Battle of Novara**: Austria defeats Sardinia again; Charles Albert abdicates for Victor Emmanuel II. - **28 Mar 1849, Frankfurt constitution**: The parliament offers the German imperial crown to Frederick William IV, who refuses it in April. - **14 Apr 1849, Hungarian Declaration of Independence**: At Debrecen the Diet dethrones the Habsburgs; Kossuth becomes governor-president. - **14 May 1849, Revolution in Baden**: Mutinous troops and democrats take Baden for the Frankfurt constitution; Prussian troops end it at Rastatt in July. - **17 Jun 1849, Russia intervenes in Hungary**: At Franz Joseph's request about 200,000 Russian troops cross the Carpathians. - **3 Jul 1849, French take Rome**: French troops end the Roman Republic after a two-month siege; Garibaldi escapes north. - **13 Aug 1849, Surrender at Világos**: Görgei surrenders the Hungarian army to the Russians; Kossuth flees to the Ottoman Empire. - **24 Aug 1849, Venice surrenders**: Cholera and hunger force Manin to give up; the last revolutionary state in Italy falls. - **6 Oct 1849, Arad martyrs**: Thirteen Hungarian generals are executed at Arad and Batthyány in Pest; Hungary is ruled by martial law. - **29 Nov 1850, Olmütz Punctation**: Prussia gives up its plan for a German union under its lead and bows to Austria; the old Confederation is restored. - **3 Jul 1853, Russia occupies the Principalities**: Russian troops cross the Prut in a dispute over the protection of Orthodox Christians; the Ottomans declare war in October. - **30 Nov 1853, Battle of Sinope**: A Russian squadron destroys the Ottoman fleet; Britain and France enter the war in March 1854. - **1854, Hanover joins the Zollverein**: Hanover, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe enter the Prussian-led customs union; Austria stays outside. - **11 May 1854, Siege of Silistra**: The Russians fail to take the Danube fortress and leave the Principalities, which Austria and the Ottomans then occupy. - **14 Sep 1854, Allies land in Crimea**: About 60,000 British, French and Ottoman troops land north of Sevastopol. - **25 Oct 1854, Battle of Balaklava**: A Russian attack on the Allied supply base is stopped; the Charge of the Light Brigade becomes legendary. - **4 Nov 1854, Florence Nightingale at Scutari**: Nightingale's nurses reform the British military hospital, a turning point for modern nursing. - **25 Apr 1855, Sardinia joins the war**: Cavour sends 15,000 troops to the Crimea to win a seat at the peace conference. - **9 Sep 1855, Fall of Sevastopol**: After the French storm the Malakoff, the Russians abandon the south side of the city. - **30 Mar 1856, Peace of Paris**: Russia loses southern Bessarabia and the Danube mouths; the Black Sea is neutralised and the Principalities come under European guarantee. - **8 Apr 1856, Cavour raises the Italian question**: At the Paris Congress Cavour denounces Austrian rule in Italy. - **14 Jan 1858, Orsini's bomb**: The Italian patriot Felice Orsini tries to kill Napoleon III, who soon decides to act for Italy. - **13 May 1858, Battle of Grahovac**: Montenegrins defeat an Ottoman army; a border commission later gives Montenegro Grahovo and Rudine. - **21 Jul 1858, Pact of Plombières**: Napoleon III and Cavour secretly agree to drive Austria out of northern Italy in exchange for Nice and Savoy. - **17 Jan 1859, Cuza elected in Moldavia**: The Iași assembly elects Alexandru Ioan Cuza prince of Moldavia. - **5 Feb 1859, Cuza elected in Wallachia**: Bucharest elects the same prince: a personal union that becomes Romania in 1862. - **4 Jun 1859, Battle of Magenta**: French and Sardinian troops defeat Austria and enter Milan four days later. - **24 Jun 1859, Battle of Solferino**: The bloodiest battle of the war; the suffering of the wounded inspires Henry Dunant to found the Red Cross. - **11 Jul 1859, Armistice of Villafranca**: Napoleon III and Franz Joseph agree: Lombardy goes to Sardinia, Venetia stays Austrian; central Italy has deposed its rulers. - **11 Mar 1860, Central Italy votes for union**: Plebiscites in Tuscany and Emilia approve union with Sardinia. - **24 Mar 1860, Treaty of Turin**: Sardinia cedes Nice and Savoy to France as the price of French help. - **15 Apr 1860, Bulgarian church protest**: Bulgarians in Constantinople refuse the Greek patriarch's authority, a step towards their own national church. - **11 May 1860, The Thousand land at Marsala**: Garibaldi lands in Sicily with about 1,000 volunteers in red shirts. - **27 May 1860, Garibaldi takes Palermo**: After three days of street fighting the Bourbon army leaves Sicily's capital. - **7 Sep 1860, Garibaldi enters Naples**: King Francis II has fled to Gaeta; Garibaldi arrives by train to cheering crowds. - **18 Sep 1860, Battle of Castelfidardo**: The Sardinian army defeats the papal army and takes the Marche and Umbria. - **1 Oct 1860, Battle of the Volturno**: Garibaldi repels the last big Bourbon offensive near Capua. - **26 Oct 1860, Teano meeting**: Garibaldi hands his conquests to Victor Emmanuel II. - **13 Feb 1861, Fall of Gaeta**: After a three-month siege the last Bourbon king capitulates. - **27 Feb 1861, Warsaw demonstrations**: Russian troops fire on patriotic crowds in Warsaw, the prelude to the January Uprising of 1863. - **3 Mar 1861, Serfs freed in Russia**: Alexander II's manifesto frees about 23 million serfs. - **17 Mar 1861, Kingdom of Italy**: The parliament in Turin proclaims Victor Emmanuel II King of Italy; Rome and Venetia are still missing. - **5 Feb 1862, Romania united**: Moldavia and Wallachia get one government and one parliament in Bucharest, still under the sultan. - **16 Feb 1862, Sokol founded**: Czech gymnastics clubs start in Prague and spread national feeling among Czechs and other Slavs. - **17 Jun 1862, Belgrade bombarded**: After a street fight, the Ottoman fortress shells Serbian Belgrade; the Powers then make most Turkish garrisons leave Serbia. - **29 Aug 1862, Aspromonte**: Italian troops stop Garibaldi's march on Rome and wound him: the kingdom does not dare a war with France. - **31 Aug 1862, Treaty of Scutari**: An Ottoman army crushes a Montenegrin and Herzegovinian revolt; Montenegro keeps its land but loses some rights. - **23 Oct 1862, Greeks depose King Otto**: A revolt ends the Bavarian king's 30-year rule. Greeks want a king who can win them more land. - **22 Jan 1863, January Uprising**: A surprise call-up drives young Poles into the forests. They fight for a free Poland, but no Great Power helps. - **8 Feb 1863, Alvensleben Convention**: Prussia helps Russia hunt Polish rebels across the border. Bismarck wins the tsar's goodwill. - **17 May 1863, Muravyov 'the Hangman' in Vilnius**: The governor-general hangs rebel leaders; from 1865 Lithuanian books in Latin letters are banned, to make the region Russian. - **18 Sep 1863, Finnish Diet meets again**: Alexander II calls Finland's parliament for the first time in 54 years; Finnish starts to gain equal status with Swedish. - **30 Oct 1863, George I, King of the Greeks**: A 17-year-old Danish prince becomes king; Britain gives the Ionian Islands to welcome him. - **24 Dec 1863, Federal troops enter Holstein**: Saxon and Hanoverian troops occupy Holstein for the German Confederation; Germans want the duchies freed from Denmark. - **18 Apr 1864, Storming of Dybbøl**: After weeks of bombardment Prussian troops take the Danish trenches; Denmark loses the war's key position. - **2 Jun 1864, Ionian Islands join Greece**: Britain hands over Corfu and six other islands after 49 years, a first step towards uniting all Greeks. - **5 Aug 1864, Traugutt hanged**: The last leader of the January Uprising is executed in the Warsaw Citadel. Russia then removes Poland's self-rule step by step. - **15 Sep 1864, September Convention**: France promises to leave Rome; Italy moves its capital from Turin to Florence in 1865. - **30 Oct 1864, Peace of Vienna**: Denmark gives up Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria. About 200,000 Danes now live under German rule. - **14 Aug 1865, Gastein Convention**: Austria and Prussia split the spoils: Prussia runs Schleswig, Austria runs Holstein, and Prussia buys Lauenburg. - **22 May 1866, Carol I, Prince of Romania**: Officers have forced Cuza out; a German prince, Carol of Hohenzollern, arrives and rules until 1914. - **27 Jun 1866, Battle of Langensalza**: Hanover's army wins a battle but is surrounded and surrenders two days later. Prussia annexes Hanover. - **3 Jul 1866, Battle of Königgrätz**: Prussia crushes the Austrian army with breech-loading rifles. Austria is pushed out of German affairs. - **20 Jul 1866, Battle of Lissa**: Austria's fleet beats the larger Italian navy, yet Italy still gets Venetia thanks to Prussia's victory. - **21 Jul 1866, Garibaldi at Bezzecca**: Garibaldi's volunteers beat the Austrians in Trentino. Ordered to stop, he answers: 'Obbedisco' (I obey). - **23 Aug 1866, Peace of Prague**: Austria accepts the end of the German Confederation and Prussia's annexations of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau and Frankfurt. - **22 Oct 1866, Venetia votes for Italy**: Austria hands Venetia to France, which passes it to Italy; a plebiscite approves the union. - **8 Nov 1866, Arkadi monastery**: Cretan rebels and their families blow up the powder store rather than surrender. Europe takes Crete's side. - **18 Apr 1867, Ottomans leave Belgrade**: Prince Michael receives the fortress keys; the last Ottoman soldiers leave Serbia, though the sultan stays overlord. - **11 May 1867, Luxembourg crisis**: Napoleon III tries to buy Luxembourg; the Powers declare it neutral and the Prussian garrison leaves. - **8 Jun 1867, Franz Joseph crowned in Budapest**: The Compromise creates Austria-Hungary: two states with one monarch. Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs and Romanians are not asked. - **1 Jul 1867, North German Confederation**: Prussia and 21 states north of the Main unite. Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and southern Hesse stay outside but allied. - **3 Nov 1867, Mentana**: French troops with new rifles beat Garibaldi's volunteers near Rome; the pope keeps Rome for three more years. - **10 Jun 1868, Prince Michael murdered**: The Serbian ruler who planned a Balkan alliance against the Ottomans is shot in a Belgrade park. - **24 Sep 1868, Croatia's Nagodba**: Croatia accepts limited self-rule inside Hungary. Many Croats feel they traded Vienna for Budapest. - **18 Jun 1869, Estonian Song Festival**: The first all-Estonian song festival in Tartu becomes a symbol of the Estonian national awakening. - **11 Mar 1870, Bulgarian Exarchate**: The sultan allows a separate Bulgarian church, the first national institution of the Bulgarians. - **13 Jul 1870, Ems telegram**: Bismarck publishes a shortened report of the king's talk with the French envoy; France declares war six days later. - **2 Sep 1870, Sedan**: Napoleon III is captured with his army. Two days later Paris proclaims a republic. - **20 Sep 1870, Porta Pia**: Italian soldiers breach the walls of Rome. Rome becomes Italian and later the capital; the pope stays in the Vatican. - **27 Oct 1870, Metz surrenders**: Marshal Bazaine surrenders 170,000 men; Lorraine is in German hands. - **23 Nov 1870, South Germany joins**: Bavaria signs on after Baden, Hesse and Württemberg: the southern states agree to join a German Empire. - **18 Jan 1871, German Empire proclaimed**: Wilhelm I of Prussia becomes German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, a humiliation for France. - **13 Feb 1871, Belfort holds out**: The French garrison resists for 103 days and leaves with honours; Belfort stays French. - **18 Mar 1871, Paris Commune**: Workers and National Guards take over Paris. Government troops crush the Commune in the 'Bloody Week' of May. - **10 May 1871, Treaty of Frankfurt**: France gives up Alsace and northern Lorraine and pays 5 billion francs; German troops stay until it is paid (1873). - **11 May 1873, Kulturkampf**: Bismarck's May Laws attack the Catholic Church; Polish and Rhineland Catholics are hit hardest. - **12 Jul 1873, Cartagena canton**: During Spain's First Republic the city declares itself an independent 'canton'; the army retakes it in January 1874. - **24 Aug 1873, Carlists take Estella**: Carlists fight for their own king and the old Basque and Navarrese rights (fueros); Estella becomes their capital. - **16 Sep 1873, Last Germans leave France**: France pays its war debt early and the occupation ends at Verdun. Alsace-Lorraine stays German. - **18 Feb 1874, Alsace protests in the Reichstag**: Deputies elected in Alsace-Lorraine protest against the annexation in Berlin; Germany ignores them. - **9 Jul 1875, Herzegovina rises**: Christian peasants at Nevesinje revolt against Ottoman tax collectors. The Great Eastern Crisis begins. - **15 Aug 1875, Revolt in Bosnian Krajina**: The rebellion spreads to northern Bosnia; thousands flee across the border into Habsburg Croatia. - **28 Feb 1876, Carlist war ends**: The last Carlist troops cross into France; the Basque fueros are abolished in July. - **20 Apr 1876, April Uprising**: Bulgarians rise at Koprivshtitsa against Ottoman rule; the revolt is crushed within weeks. - **7 May 1876, Batak massacre**: Irregular Ottoman troops kill about 5,000 villagers. Reports shock Europe. - **30 May 1876, Ems Ukaz**: The tsar bans books and teaching in Ukrainian, which Russia calls a mere dialect of Russian. - **30 Jun 1876, Serbia declares war**: Prince Milan goes to war to help the Bosnian Serbs; Russian volunteers join him. Montenegro follows. - **6 Sep 1876, 'Bulgarian Horrors'**: Gladstone's pamphlet turns British opinion against supporting the Ottomans. - **29 Oct 1876, Battle of Đunis**: The Serbian army collapses; a Russian ultimatum forces the Ottomans to stop. - **23 Dec 1876, Ottoman constitution**: As the Powers meet in Constantinople, the sultan proclaims a constitution and rejects their reform plan. - **24 Apr 1877, Russia declares war**: Alexander II attacks the Ottoman Empire; Romania lets the Russian army through. - **21 May 1877, Romania declares independence**: Romania breaks with the sultan and sends its army to fight beside Russia. - **27 Jun 1877, Russians cross the Danube**: The Russian army lands at Svishtov; Bulgarian volunteers fight with them. - **21 Aug 1877, Shipka Pass**: Russian soldiers and Bulgarian volunteers hold the mountain pass against Ottoman attacks. - **8 Sep 1877, Montenegro takes Nikšić**: After a long siege the Montenegrins capture the fortress. - **10 Dec 1877, Plevna surrenders**: Osman Pasha gives up after a five-month siege by Russian and Romanian troops. - **4 Jan 1878, Russians enter Sofia**: General Gurko crosses the Balkan mountains in winter and takes Sofia. - **10 Jan 1878, Montenegro reaches the sea**: Montenegrins capture Bar (Antivari) and Ulcinj on the Adriatic coast. - **11 Jan 1878, Serbs take Niš**: Serbia has rejoined the war and also captures Pirot and Vranje. - **20 Jan 1878, Russians in Adrianople**: The Ottoman second city falls; an armistice follows and Russian troops reach the outskirts of Constantinople. - **3 Mar 1878, Treaty of San Stefano**: Russia imposes a Big Bulgaria reaching the Aegean. Britain and Austria-Hungary refuse to accept it. - **4 Jun 1878, Cyprus to Britain**: Britain takes over Cyprus in return for defending the sultan against Russia. - **10 Jun 1878, League of Prizren**: Albanian leaders unite to stop their lands being given to Serbia and Montenegro: the start of the Albanian national movement. - **13 Jul 1878, Congress of Berlin**: The Powers cut Big Bulgaria in three. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania become fully independent. - **19 Aug 1878, Austria-Hungary occupies Bosnia**: Habsburg troops take Sarajevo after hard fighting; Bosnia stays Ottoman on paper. - **21 Apr 1879, Garrisons in the Sanjak**: Austria-Hungary posts troops in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, a wedge between Serbia and Montenegro. - **7 Oct 1879, Dual Alliance**: Germany and Austria-Hungary promise each other help against Russia. - **21 Oct 1879, Land League**: Irish tenants organise against landlords; Parnell's Home Rule movement grows. - **26 Nov 1880, Ulcinj to Montenegro**: Albanians block the handover of Plav and Gusinje, so the Powers give Montenegro the port of Ulcinj instead. - **13 Mar 1881, Alexander II killed**: Revolutionaries bomb the tsar. Alexander III answers with repression and Russification. - **26 Mar 1881, Romania a kingdom**: Carol I takes the title of king. - **27 Apr 1881, Pogroms**: Anti-Jewish riots start in Elisavetgrad and spread; many Jews later emigrate west. - **2 Jul 1881, Thessaly to Greece**: The Ottomans hand over Thessaly and Arta; about 300,000 people join the Greek state. - **6 Mar 1882, Serbia a kingdom**: Milan Obrenović takes the crown; many Serbs still live outside Serbia, in Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. - **20 May 1882, Triple Alliance**: Italy joins Germany and Austria-Hungary, although Austria still rules Italian-speaking Trento and Trieste. - **20 Dec 1882, Oberdan hanged**: The Trieste-born Italian nationalist becomes a martyr of 'unredeemed Italy'. - **26 Mar 1885, Prussian expulsions**: Prussia expels about 30,000 Poles and Jews without German citizenship from its eastern provinces. - **18 Sep 1885, Union at Plovdiv**: A coup in Plovdiv joins Eastern Rumelia to Bulgaria, against the Berlin settlement. - **17 Nov 1885, Battle of Slivnitsa**: Bulgaria beats the invading Serbian army; peace in 1886 keeps the old borders and the union holds. - **8 Jun 1886, Home Rule defeated**: The House of Commons rejects Gladstone's bill for Irish self-government by 30 votes. - **20 Mar 1890, Bismarck dismissed**: The young Wilhelm II forces out the chancellor who unified Germany. - **9 Aug 1890, Heligoland becomes German**: Britain swaps the North Sea island for German claims in East Africa. - **23 Nov 1890, Luxembourg on its own**: A woman cannot inherit Luxembourg's throne, so the union with the Dutch crown ends; Adolphe of Nassau becomes Grand Duke. - **27 Mar 1892, Bases de Manresa**: Catalan nationalists demand their own parliament, courts and the Catalan language. - **8 Sep 1893, Home Rule blocked again**: The Lords reject Irish self-government; the Gaelic League starts reviving the Irish language. - **15 Oct 1894, Dreyfus arrested**: A Jewish officer is falsely convicted of spying for Germany; the affair splits France. - **15 Jul 1895, Stambolov murdered**: Bulgaria's strongman, who kept Russia out of Bulgarian affairs, is killed in Sofia. - **31 Jul 1895, Basque Nationalist Party**: Sabino Arana founds a party for a Basque nation separate from Spain. - **15 Feb 1897, Greek landing on Crete**: Greek troops land to back a Cretan revolt and claim the island; the Great Powers make them withdraw. - **17 Apr 1897, Greco-Turkish War**: A poorly prepared Greek army is beaten within a month; the Ottomans occupy Thessaly. - **17 May 1897, Battle of Domokos**: The last big battle; the Greeks retreat to Thermopylae and ask for an armistice. - **29 Aug 1897, First Zionist Congress**: Theodor Herzl calls for a Jewish national home: a nationalism of a people without a state. - **28 Nov 1897, Badeni riots**: A decree making Czech equal to German in Bohemia brings riots in Prague and Vienna; the prime minister falls. - **4 Dec 1897, Treaty of Constantinople**: Greece pays a war indemnity and loses small border strips, but gets Thessaly back in 1898. - **18 Apr 1898, Dutch equal to French in Belgium**: The 'Equality Law' makes Dutch an official language of Belgian laws, a victory for the Flemish movement. - **6 Sep 1898, Heraklion massacre**: A Muslim mob kills British soldiers and Christians; the Powers order all Ottoman troops off Crete. - **21 Dec 1898, Prince George on Crete**: A Greek prince governs the autonomous Cretan State for the Powers; the sultan stays overlord in name. - **15 Feb 1899, February Manifesto**: Nicholas II curbs Finland's autonomy; half a million Finns sign a protest petition. - **20 May 1901, Września school strike**: Polish children refuse to pray in German and are beaten; the strike becomes a Polish national symbol. - **11 Jun 1903, May Coup**: Officers kill King Alexander and Queen Draga; Peter Karađorđević turns Serbia away from Austria. - **2 Aug 1903, Ilinden Uprising**: Macedonian revolutionaries rise against Ottoman rule across the Monastir region. - **3 Aug 1903, Kruševo Republic**: Rebels proclaim a republic for all inhabitants; the Ottoman army destroys it ten days later. - **19 Aug 1903, Preobrazhenie Uprising**: Bulgarians in Ottoman Thrace hold the Strandzha hills for 26 days. - **2 Oct 1903, Mürzsteg Programme**: Austria-Hungary and Russia impose reforms in Macedonia, with foreign officers in the gendarmerie. - **8 Apr 1904, Entente cordiale**: Britain and France settle their colonial quarrels and draw closer against Germany. - **16 Jun 1904, Bobrikov shot**: A Finnish activist kills the Russian governor-general who led the Russification of Finland. - **13 Oct 1904, Pavlos Melas killed**: A Greek officer dies in the 'Macedonian Struggle' between Greek and Bulgarian bands. - **22 Jan 1905, Bloody Sunday**: Troops fire on peaceful petitioners in St Petersburg; revolution spreads across the empire. - **10 Mar 1905, Theriso revolt**: Venizelos and Cretan rebels demand union with Greece. - **7 Jun 1905, Norway ends the union**: The Storting declares the union with Sweden dissolved; in August 99.9% vote for independence. - **21 Jun 1905, Łódź insurrection**: Polish workers build barricades; troops crush them after four days. - **27 Jun 1905, Potemkin mutiny**: The crew of a battleship rebels and sails into Odesa. - **30 Oct 1905, Finnish general strike**: A week-long national strike makes the tsar restore Finland's rights. - **25 Nov 1905, Haakon VII, King of Norway**: Sweden has let Norway go peacefully; a Danish prince becomes the new country's king. - **4 Dec 1905, Great Seimas of Vilnius**: Two thousand Lithuanian delegates demand autonomy inside the Russian Empire. - **10 Dec 1905, Latvian revolution**: Latvian peasants and workers take over towns and manors; punitive troops kill thousands. - **20 Dec 1905, Moscow uprising**: Workers fight on barricades in Moscow for nine days before the army crushes them. - **29 May 1906, Women vote in Finland**: A new law gives all adult Finns, women too, the vote and the right to stand; in 1907 Finland elects Europe's first women MPs. - **1 Mar 1907, Romanian peasant revolt**: Peasants rise against landowners across Romania; the army kills thousands. - **27 Oct 1907, Černová massacre**: Hungarian gendarmes shoot Slovak villagers; Europe learns of Magyarisation. - **3 Jul 1908, Young Turk revolution**: Officers force the sultan to restore the constitution; Christians and Muslims celebrate 'liberty'. - **5 Oct 1908, Bulgaria independent**: Ferdinand proclaims full independence at Tarnovo and takes the title of Tsar. - **6 Oct 1908, Bosnia annexed**: Austria-Hungary turns its occupation into annexation and leaves the Sanjak; Serbs are furious. - **7 Oct 1908, Crete votes for union**: The Cretan assembly declares union with Greece; the Powers refuse to accept it. - **14 Nov 1908, Congress of Monastir**: Albanian leaders choose the Latin alphabet for their language. - **26 Jul 1909, Tragic Week**: Protests against call-ups for the war in Morocco turn into revolt in Barcelona. - **1 Apr 1910, Kosovo uprising**: Albanians resist new Young Turk taxes and disarmament; the Ottoman army crushes them. - **28 Aug 1910, Montenegro a kingdom**: Prince Nikola takes the title of king. - **5 Oct 1910, Portugal a republic**: A revolution in Lisbon overthrows King Manuel II. - **6 Apr 1911, Battle of Deçiq**: Highland Albanians raise their flag; in June the Greçë Memorandum demands Albanian schools and self-rule. - **31 May 1911, Alsace-Lorraine constitution**: The Reichsland gets its own parliament but not the rights of a full German state. - **4 May 1912, Italy takes Rhodes**: In its war with the Ottomans over Libya, Italy seizes Rhodes and the Dodecanese, which stay Italian until 1947. - **21 Jul 1912, Albanians take Pristina**: Albanians tired of Young Turk taxes and centralisation take control of Kosovo. - **12 Aug 1912, Albanian rebels in Skopje**: Rebels raise the Albanian flag in Skopje; the sultan gives in to most of their demands. - **28 Sep 1912, Ulster Covenant**: Nearly half a million Ulster Protestants sign a pledge against Irish Home Rule. - **8 Oct 1912, Montenegro declares war**: The First Balkan War begins; Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece join within ten days. - **18 Oct 1912, Treaty of Ouchy**: The Ottomans give up Libya; Italy keeps the Dodecanese 'for now'. - **23 Oct 1912, Battle of Kumanovo**: Serbia wins and takes Skopje and Kosovo, lands Serbs see as their medieval heartland. - **24 Oct 1912, Battle of Kirk Kilisse**: The Bulgarian army breaks through in Thrace and marches towards Constantinople. - **29 Oct 1912, Siege of Adrianople**: Bulgarian and Serbian troops surround the old Ottoman capital. - **8 Nov 1912, Greeks enter Salonica**: The Greek army arrives just before the Bulgarians in a city of Jews, Greeks, Turks and Slavs. - **17 Nov 1912, Bulgarians stopped at Çatalca**: Cholera and Ottoman forts halt the Bulgarians about 40 km from Constantinople. - **19 Nov 1912, Serbs take Bitola**: Serbia pushes through Macedonia, a land that Serbs, Bulgarians and Greeks all claim. - **28 Nov 1912, Albania declares independence**: Ismail Qemali raises the flag at Vlorë: the first Albanian state. - **3 Dec 1912, Armistice of Çatalca**: The Ottomans sign an armistice with Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro; peace talks open in London. Greece fights on. - **6 Mar 1913, Greeks take Ioannina**: After a long siege most of Epirus becomes Greek; the north later goes to Albania. - **26 Mar 1913, Adrianople falls**: The Ottoman garrison surrenders to Bulgaria and Serbia after five months. - **23 Apr 1913, Montenegro takes Shkodër**: The Powers force Montenegro out in May and give the city to Albania; an international force holds it. - **30 May 1913, Treaty of London**: The Ottomans give up almost everything west of the Enos-Midia line; the allies now quarrel over Macedonia. - **30 Jun 1913, Second Balkan War**: Bulgaria attacks its former allies; the Serbs hold the Bregalnica. - **3 Jul 1913, Battle of Kilkis**: The Greeks beat the Bulgarians and then burn the town. - **10 Jul 1913, Romania invades Bulgaria**: Romanian troops cross the Danube against an almost undefended Bulgaria. - **22 Jul 1913, Ottomans retake Adrianople**: Enver Pasha marches back into the city without a fight. - **27 Jul 1913, Kresna Gorge**: Bulgarians nearly trap the Greek army; an armistice saves it. - **10 Aug 1913, Treaty of Bucharest**: Bulgaria loses most of Macedonia and southern Dobruja; Serbia, Greece and Romania gain. Bitterness lasts. - **29 Sep 1913, Treaty of Constantinople**: Bulgaria accepts that Adrianople stays Ottoman. - **18 Oct 1913, Serbia leaves Albania**: An Austro-Hungarian ultimatum forces Serbian troops out of northern Albania. - **28 Nov 1913, Zabern affair**: A Prussian lieutenant insults Alsatians in Saverne; the army's arrests spark protests across Germany. - **1 Dec 1913, Crete joins Greece**: The Greek flag is raised over Chania: the union is finally recognised. - **17 Dec 1913, Protocol of Florence**: The Powers fix Albania's southern border; many Albanians are left outside the new state. - **28 Feb 1914, Northern Epirus revolt**: Greeks in southern Albania proclaim autonomy at Gjirokastër as the Greek army leaves. - **7 Mar 1914, Prince Wilhelm of Wied**: A German prince arrives at Durrës to rule Albania; Dutch officers lead its gendarmerie. - **24 Apr 1914, Larne gun-running**: Ulster Volunteers land 25,000 German rifles to resist Home Rule; Ireland nears civil war. - **17 May 1914, Protocol of Corfu**: Northern Epirus gets autonomy inside Albania. - **3 Jun 1914, Peasant revolt in Albania**: Muslim rebels set up a council at Shijak; Prince Wilhelm holds little more than Durrës. - **28 Jun 1914, Assassination in Sarajevo**: Gavrilo Princip of 'Young Bosnia' shoots Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Within six weeks Europe is at war.